Difference between revisions of "ModTweaker:TConstruct Support"

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{{Other uses of|English}}
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== Handlers Supported ==
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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
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{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}
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{{pp-semi-indef}}
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{{pp-move-indef}}
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{{Infobox language
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|name          = English
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|pronunciation = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|ŋ|ɡ|l|ɪ|ʃ}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordadvancedlearnersdictionary.com/dictionary/english_2 |title=English Adjective |publisher=Oxfordadvancedlearnersdictionary.com |accessdate=2013-04-20}}</ref>
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|region        = (see [[#Geographical distribution|below]])
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|speakers      = [[First language|L1]]: 427&nbsp;million
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|date          = 1997
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|ref = <ref name="Crystal1">[[#Crystal1997b|Crystal (1997b)]], p. 289</ref>
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|speakers2 = [[Second language|L2]]: 900–1500&nbsp;million (1997)<ref name="Crystal2">[[#Crystal1997b|Crystal (1997b)]], p. 445</ref>
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|familycolor  = Indo-European
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|fam2  = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
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|fam3  = [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
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|fam4  = [[Ingvaeonic languages|Ingvaeonic]]
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|fam5  = [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo–Frisian]]
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|fam6  = [[English languages|Anglic]]
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|sign  = [[Manually coded English]]<br>(multiple systems)
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|ancestor=[[Old English]]
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|ancestor2=[[Middle English]]
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|ancestor3=[[Early Modern English]]
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|script = [[Latin script]] ([[English alphabet]])<br>[[English Braille]]
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|nation = [[List of countries where English is an official language#Sovereign states|54 countries]]<br />[[List of countries where English is an official language#Non-sovereign entities|27 non-sovereign entities]]<br />{{Collapsible list |titlestyle= font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;| title= Various organisations|
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[[United Nations]]<br />[[European Union]]<br />[[Commonwealth of Nations]]<br />[[Council of Europe]]<br />[[GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development]]<br />[[International Criminal Court|ICC]]<br />[[International Olympic Committee|IOC]]<br />[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]<br />[[NATO]]<br />[[North American Free Trade Agreement|NAFTA]]<br />[[Organization of American States|OAS]]<br />[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]<br />[[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|OIC]]<br />[[OPEC]]<br />[[Pacific Islands Forum|PIF]]<br />[[UKUSA Agreement]]
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}}
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|iso1  = en
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|iso2  = eng
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|iso3  = eng
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|lingua = 52-ABA
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|map    = Anglospeak.svg
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|mapcaption =
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{{legend|#0000ff|Countries where English is an official or de facto official language, or national language, and is spoken natively by the majority of the population}}
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{{legend|#8ddada|Countries where it is an official but not primary language}}
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|notice = IPA
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}}
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'''English''' is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]] that was first spoken in [[Anglo-Saxon England|early medieval England]] and is now a global ''[[lingua franca]]''.<ref>[[#refOstler2010|Ostler]], p.&nbsp;1–4.</ref><ref name="Global English: gift or curse">{{cite journal |title=Global English: gift or curse? |doi=10.1017/S0266078405002075 |year=2005 |last1=Smith |first1=Ross |journal=English Today |volume=21 |issue=2 |page=56}}</ref> It is spoken as a first language by the majority populations of several sovereign states, including the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[New Zealand]] and a number of [[Caribbean]] nations; and it is an [[official language]] of [[list of countries where English is an official language|almost 60 sovereign states]]. It is the third-most-common native language in the world, after [[Mandarin Chinese]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]].<ref name="ethnologue" /> It is widely learned as a [[second language]] and is an [[Languages of the European Union|official language of the European Union]], many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries and the [[Official languages of the United Nations|United Nations]], as well as in many world organisations.
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The following handlers are supported:
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* Casting
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* Drying Rack
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* Modifiers
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* Smeltery
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* Repair Materials
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* Tool Stats
  
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English arose in the [[Anglo-Saxon kingdoms]] of England and what is now southeast [[Scotland]]. Following the extensive influence of [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and the United Kingdom from the 17th to mid-20th centuries through the [[British Empire]], it has been [[English-speaking world|widely propagated]] around the world.<ref>[[#refAmmon2006|Ammon]], pp.&nbsp;2245–2247.</ref><ref>[[#refSchneider2007|Schneider]], p.&nbsp;1.</ref><ref>[[#refMazrui1998|Mazrui]], p.&nbsp;21.</ref><ref>[[#refHowatt2004|Howatt]], pp.&nbsp;127–133.</ref> Through the spread of [[American English|American]]-dominated media and technology,<ref>Hjarvard, Stig (2004) [http://www.nordicom.gu.se/common/publ_pdf/157_075-098.pdf "The globalization of language: How the media contribute to the spread of English and the emergence of medialects"] Trans. Charly Hultén. ''Nordicom Review''. Retrieved 30 December 2014.</ref> English has become the [[World language|leading language]] of international discourse and the ''lingua franca'' in many regions.<ref>[[#Crystal1997a|Crystal (1997a)]], pp.&nbsp;87–89.</ref><ref>[[#refWardhaugh2006|Wardhaugh]], p.&nbsp;60.</ref>
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Each of these handlers can have recipes added or removed:
  
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Historically, English originated from the fusion of closely related [[dialect]]s, now collectively termed [[Old English]], which were brought to the eastern coast of Great Britain by [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] settlers ([[Anglo-Saxons]]) by the 5th century; the word ''English'' is derived from the name of the [[Angles]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/English |title=English&nbsp;– Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=25 April 2007 |accessdate=4 November 2012}}</ref> and ultimately from their ancestral region of [[Angeln]] (in what is now [[Schleswig-Holstein]]). The language was also influenced early on by the [[Old Norse|Old Norse language]] through [[Danelaw|Viking invasions]] in the 9th and 10th centuries.
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Parameters marked as <span style="color:red">red</span> are optional and can be left out
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//Casting
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//OutputStack, InputFluid, <span style="color:red">CastStack</span>, <span style="color:red">ConsumeCast</span>, Time in Ticks
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mods.tconstruct.Casting.addBasinRecipe(<TConstruct:MeatBlock>, <liquid:pigiron.molten> * 1152, <minecraft:bone>, true, 20);
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//OutputStack, InputFluid, <span style="color:red">CastStack</span>, <span style="color:red">ConsumeCast</span>, Time in Ticks
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mods.tconstruct.Casting.addTableRecipe(<TConstruct:strangeFood:2>, <liquid:pigiron.molten> * 57, null, false, 20);
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//OutputStack
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mods.tconstruct.Casting.removeBasinRecipe(<minecraft:iron_block>);
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mods.tconstruct.Casting.removeTableRecipe(<minecraft:iron_ingot>);
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//Drying Rack
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//InputStack, OutputStack, Time in Ticks
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mods.tconstruct.Drying.addRecipe(<minecraft:tallgrass:1>, <minecraft:deadbush>, 50);
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//OutputStack
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mods.tconstruct.Drying.removeRecipe(<TConstruct:jerky>);
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//Modifiers
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//ModifierString
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mods.tconstruct.Modifiers.remove("Blaze");
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//Smeltery
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//InputStack, OutputFluid, TemperatureAmount, <span style="color:red">BlockRender</span>
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mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.addMelting(<minecraft:porkchop>, <liquid:blood> * 200, 200, <TConstruct:MeatBlock>);
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//InputStack
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mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.removeMelting(<TConstruct:strangeFood:1>);
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//OutputFluid, InputFluidArray
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mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.addAlloy(<liquid:aluminumbrass.molten> * 64, [<liquid:aluminum.molten> * 48, <liquid:gold.molten> * 16]);
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//OutputFluid
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mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.removeAlloy(<liquid:manyullyn.molten>);
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//InputFluid, TemperatureAmount, Time in Ticks
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mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.addFuel(<liquid:iron.molten>, 64, 64);
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//InputFluid
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mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.removeFuel(<liquid:lava>);
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//Repair Materials
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//InputStack, MaterialString, ValueAmount
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mods.tconstruct.Tweaks.addRepairMaterial(<minecraft:stonebrick>, "Stone", 2);
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//InputStack, <span style="color:red">MaterialString</span>
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mods.tconstruct.Tweaks.removeRepairMaterial(<minecraft:stone>, "Stone");
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//Tool Stats
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//MaterialString, DisplayName, HarvestLevel, DurabilityValue, SpeedValue, DamageValue, HandleModifier, ReinforcedLevel, StoneboundLevel, StyleString, Colour
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setStats("Stone", "Modtweaker Stone", 47, 108, 112, 83, 0.5, 102, 0.5, "gold", 484848);
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//MaterialString, DisplayName
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setDisplayName("Wood", "Modtweaker Wood");
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//MaterialString, HarvestLevel
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setHarvestLevel("Wood", 1);
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//MaterialString, DurabilityValue
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setDurability("Wood", 3000);
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//MaterialString, SpeedValue
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setSpeed("Wood", 30);
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//MaterialString, DamageValue
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setDamage("Wood", 9001);
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//MaterialString, HandleModifier
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setHandleModifier("Wood", 50.5);
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//MaterialString, ReinforcedLevel
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setReinforcedLevel("Wood", 4);
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//MaterialString, StoneboundLevel
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setStoneboundLevel("Wood", 6);
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//MaterialString, StyleString
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setStyle("Wood", "§4");
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//MaterialString, AbilityString
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setAbility("Wood", "Stonebound");
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//MaterialString, DurabilityValue, DrawSpeedValue, FlightSpeedValue
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setBowStats("Stone", 100, 21, 12.5F);
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//MaterialString, DurabilityValue
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setBowDurability("Wood", 2000);
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//MaterialString, DrawSpeedValue
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setBowDrawspeed("Wood", 250);
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//MaterialString, FlightSpeedValue
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setBowFlightSpeed("Wood", 6.5F);
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//MaterialString, MassValue, BreakChanceValue, AccuracyValue
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setArrowStats("Stone", 2.5F, 5.0F, 100F)
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//MaterialString, MassValue
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setArrowMass("Wood", 3.5F);
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//MaterialString, BreakChanceValue
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mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setArrowBreakChance("Wood", 25F);
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//MaterialString, AccuracyValue
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mods.tconstruct.TooLStats.setArrowAccuracy("Wood", 20F);
  
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The [[Norman conquest of England]] in the 11th century gave rise to heavy borrowings from [[Norman language|Norman French]], and vocabulary and spelling conventions began to give the appearance of a close relationship with those of Latin-derived [[Romance languages]] (though English is not a Romance language itself)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab13 |title=Words on the brain: from 1&nbsp;million years ago?
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== Commands Supported ==
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|work=History of language |accessdate=5 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orbilat.com/Influences_of_Romance/English/RIFL-English-Latin-The_Inflluences_on_Old_English.html |title=Latin Influences on Old English |author=Baugh, Albert C. and Cable, Thomas |year=1978 |work=An excerpt from Foreign Influences on Old English |accessdate=5 September 2010}}</ref> to what had then become [[Middle English]]. The [[Great Vowel Shift]] that began in the south of England in the 15th century is one of the historical events that mark the emergence of [[Modern English]] from Middle English.
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Prints are stored in the minetweaker log in the minecraft directory.
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  /minetweaker tconstruct [HANDLER] - Outputs a list of all TConstruct recipes
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In addition to words inherited natively from Anglo-Saxon and those borrowed from Norman French, a significant number of English terms are derived from constructions based on root words originally taken from [[Latin]], because Latin in some form was the ''lingua franca'' of the Christian Church and of European intellectual life<ref name="Weissbort">Daniel Weissbort (2006). "Translation: theory and practice : a historical reader". p.100. Oxford University Press, 2006</ref> and remains [[Contemporary Latin|the wellspring of much modern scientific and technical vocabulary]].
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  /minetweaker materials - Outputs a list of material strings
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  /minetweaker modifiers - Outputs a list of modifiers strings
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Owing to the assimilation of words from many other languages throughout history, modern English contains a very large vocabulary, with complex and irregular spelling, particularly of vowels. Modern English has not only assimilated words from other European languages, but from all over the world. The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' lists more than 250,000 distinct words, not including many technical, scientific, and [[slang]] terms.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords |title=How many words are there in the English Language? |publisher=Oxforddictionaries.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vistawide.com/languages/language_statistics.htm |title=Vista Worldwide Language Statistics |publisher=Vistawide.com |accessdate=31 October 2010}}</ref>
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{{ModTweakerNavigation}}
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==Etymology==
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The word ''English'' derives from the eponym ''Angle'', the name of a Germanic tribe thought to originate from the Angeln area of [[Jutland]], now in northern Germany.<ref>{{OEtymD|english}}</ref> For possible etymologies of these words, see the articles [[Angeln]] and [[Angles]].
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==Significance==
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{{See also|Anglosphere}}
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Modern English, sometimes described as the first global ''[[lingua franca]]'',<ref name="Global English: gift or curse"/><ref name = "Graddol"/> is the [[Linguistic imperialism|dominant language]] or in some instances even the required [[international auxiliary language|international language]] of communications, science, information technology, business, seafaring,<ref>{{cite web|title=IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases|url=http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx|publisher=International Maritime Organization|accessdate=2 June 2011}}{{dead link|date=October 2011}}</ref> aviation,<ref>{{cite web|title=FAQ – Language proficiency requirements for licence holders – In which languages does a licence holder need to demonstrate proficiency?|url=http://www.icao.int/icao/en/trivia/peltrgFAQ.htm#23|publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization – Air Navigation Bureau|accessdate=2 June 2011}}</ref> entertainment, radio, and diplomacy.<ref name="triumph">{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=883997 |title=The triumph of English |accessdate=26 March 2007 |date=20 December 2001 |publisher=The Economist }}{{subscription}}</ref> Its spread beyond the [[British Isles]] began with the growth of the [[British Empire]], and by the late 19th century its reach was global.<ref name="wwenglish">{{cite web |url=http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20070401233529/http://www.ehistling-pub.meotod.de/01_lec06.php |title=Lecture 7: World-Wide English |accessdate=26 March 2007|publisher=<sub>E</sub>HistLing }}</ref> Following [[British Empire|British colonisation]] from the 16th to 19th centuries, it became the dominant language in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The growing economic and cultural influence of the US and its status as a global [[superpower]] since World War II have significantly accelerated the spread of the language across the planet.<ref name="Graddol">{{cite web |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/de/learning-elt-future.pdf |format=PDF|title=The Future of English? |accessdate=15 April 2007 |year=1997 |author=[[David Graddol]] |publisher=The British Council }}</ref>
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English replaced [[German language|German]] as the dominant language of science-related [[Nobel Prize]] laureates during the second half of the 20th century.<ref>Graphics: [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/scilang.html English replacing German as language of Science Nobel Prize winners]. From [[Jürgen Schmidhuber|J. Schmidhuber]] (2010), [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/nobelshare.html Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th Century] at [http://arxiv.org/abs/1009.2634 arXiv:1009.2634v1]</ref>
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English equalled and may have surpassed [[French language|French]] as the dominant language of diplomacy during the second half of the 19th century.
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A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of fields, occupations and professions such as medicine and computing; as a consequence, more than a billion people speak English to at least a basic level (see [[English as a second or foreign language]]). It is one of six official languages of the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/languages.shtml |title=UN official languages |publisher=Un.org |accessdate=2013-04-20}}</ref>
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One impact of the growth of English is the reduction of native [[linguistic diversity]] in many parts of the world. The influence of English continues to play an important role in [[language attrition]].<ref name="Crystal-LanguageDeath">{{cite book | last = Crystal | first = David | authorlink = David Crystal | title = Language Death | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | year = 2002 | doi = 10.2277/0521012716 | isbn = 0-521-01271-6 }}</ref> Conversely, the natural internal variety of English along with [[English-based creole languages|creoles]] and [[pidgin]]s have the potential to produce new distinct languages from English over time.<ref name="Cheshire">{{cite book | last = Cheshire | first = Jenny | authorlink = Jenny Cheshire | title = English Around The World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | year = 1991 | doi = 10.2277/0521395658 | isbn = 0-521-39565-8 }}</ref>
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==History==
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{{Main|History of the English language}}
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[[File:Beowulf Cotton MS Vitellius A XV f. 132r.jpg|thumb|The first sentence of ''[[Beowulf]]'' (above) reads in Old English, "Hƿæt ƿē Gārdena ingēar dagum þēod cyninga þrym ge frunon," which means, "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings."]]
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English originated in those dialects of [[Ingvaeonic languages|North Sea Germanic]] that were carried to Britain by [[Germanic peoples|Germanic settlers]] from various parts of what are now the Netherlands, northwest Germany, and Denmark.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blench |first1=R.|last2=Spriggs |first2=Matthew |title=Archaeology and Language: Correlating Archaeological and Linguistic Hypotheses |pages=285–286 |year=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-11761-6 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&pg=PA286 }}</ref> Up to that point, in [[Roman Britain]] the native population is assumed to have spoken [[Common Brittonic]], a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]], alongside the [[Post-creole continuum#Stratification|acrolectal]] influence of Latin, due to the 400-year period of [[Roman Britain]].<ref>[http://www.information-britain.co.uk/historydetails/article/2/ ''"The Roman epoch in Britain lasted for 367 years"''], Information Britain website</ref> One of these incoming Germanic tribes was the [[Angles]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anglik.net/englishlanguagehistory.htm |title=Anglik English language resource |publisher=Anglik.net |accessdate=21 April 2010}}</ref> whom [[Bede]] believed to have relocated entirely to Britain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bede/history.v.i.xiv.html |title=Bede's Ecclesiastical History of England &#124; Christian Classics Ethereal Library |publisher=Ccel.org |date=1 June 2005 |accessdate=2 January 2010}}</ref> The names 'England' (from ''Engla land''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427|title=Engla land|work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) | author=Bosworth, Joseph | authorlink=Joseph Bosworth |author2=Toller, T. Northcote | location=Prague | publisher=[[Charles University]]}}</ref> "Land of the Angles") and ''English'' (Old English ''Englisc''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009433|title=Englisc |work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) | author=Bosworth, Joseph | authorlink=Joseph Bosworth |author2=Toller, T. Northcote | location=Prague | publisher=[[Charles University]]}}</ref>) are derived from the name of this tribe—but [[Saxons]], [[Jutes]] and a range of Germanic peoples from the coasts of [[Frisia]], [[Lower Saxony]], [[Jutland]] and Southern [[Sweden]] also moved to Britain in this era.<ref>{{cite book|last=Collingwood|first=R. G.|authorlink=R. G. Collingwood|author2=et al|title=Roman Britain and English Settlements|publisher=Clarendon|location=Oxford, England|year=1936|pages=325 et&nbsp;sec|chapter=The English Settlements. The Sources for the period: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes on the Continent|isbn=0-8196-1160-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html |title=Linguistics Research Center Texas University |publisher=Utexas.edu |date=20 February 2009 |accessdate=21 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/firsteuro/invas.html |title=The Germanic Invasions of Western Europe, Calgary University |publisher=Ucalgary.ca |accessdate=21 April 2010}}</ref>
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Initially, [[Old English]] was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of [[Anglo-Saxon England]]<ref>Graddol, David; Leith, Dick and Swann, Joan (1996) ''English: History, Diversity and Change'', New York: Routledge, p. 101, ISBN 0415131189.</ref> but the [[West Saxon dialect (Old English)|West Saxon dialect]] eventually came to dominate, and it is in this that the poem ''[[Beowulf]]'' is written.
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Old English was later transformed by two waves of invasion. The first was by speakers of the [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] language branch when [[Halfdan Ragnarsson]] and [[Ivar the Boneless]] started the conquering and colonisation of northern parts of the British Isles in the 8th and 9th centuries (see [[Danelaw]]). The second was by speakers of the [[Romance languages|Romance language]] [[Old Norman]] in the 11th century with the [[Norman conquest of England]]. Norman developed into [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]], and then [[Law French|Anglo-French]] – and introduced a layer of words especially via the courts and government. As well as extending the lexicon with Scandinavian and Norman words, these two events simplified the grammar and transformed English into a borrowing language—unusually open to accepting new words from other languages.
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The linguistic shifts in English following the Norman invasion produced what is now referred to as [[Middle English]]; [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' is its best-known work. Throughout this period, Latin in some form was the ''lingua franca'' of European intellectual life – first the [[Medieval Latin]] of the Christian Church, and later the [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]] [[Renaissance Latin]] – and those who wrote or copied texts in Latin<ref name="Weissbort"/> commonly coined new terms from that language to refer to things or concepts for which there was no native English word.
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[[Modern English]], which includes the works of [[William Shakespeare]]<ref>[[Fausto Cercignani|Cercignani, Fausto]] (1981) ''Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation'', Oxford, Clarendon Press.</ref> and the [[King James Version]] of the Bible, is generally dated from about 1550, and after the United Kingdom became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the [[British Empire]]. In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created nations that had multiple [[indigenous language]]s opted to continue using English as the lingua franca to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. As a result of the growth of the British Empire, English was adopted in North America, India, Africa, Australia and many other regions – a trend that was reinforced by the emergence of the United States as a superpower in the mid-20th century.
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==Classification and related languages==
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===Germanic family===
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The English language belongs to the [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]] sub-group of the [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] branch of the [[Germanic languages]], a member of the [[Indo-European languages]]. Modern English is the direct descendant of [[Middle English]], itself a direct descendant of [[Old English]], a descendant of the [[Proto-Germanic language]]. Typical of most Germanic languages, English is characterised by the use of [[modal verb]]s, the division of verbs into [[Germanic strong verb|strong]] and [[Germanic weak verb|weak]] classes, and common sound shifts from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] known as [[Grimm's law]]. The closest living relatives of English (besides the [[English languages]] and [[English-based creole languages]]) are the [[Frisian languages]] of the southern fringes of the [[North Sea]] in the [[Netherlands]], [[Germany]], and [[Denmark]].
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After Frisian come those Germanic languages that are more distantly related: the non-Anglo-Frisian West Germanic languages ([[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Low German]], [[German language|High German]], [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]), and the [[North Germanic languages]] ([[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], and [[Faroese language|Faroese]]). None of the Continental Germanic languages is mutually intelligible with English, owing in part to divergences in [[lexis (linguistics)|lexis]], [[syntax]], [[semantics]], and [[phonology]], and to the isolation afforded to English by the British Isles, although some, such as Dutch, do show strong affinities with English, especially to its earlier stages. Isolation has allowed English (as well as Icelandic and Faroese) to develop independently of the Continental Germanic languages and their influences.<ref>[[#Baugh|Baugh]], p. 336.</ref>
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[[File:Øvre Stabu spearhead.png|thumb|300px|left|The 2nd-century [[Øvre Stabu spearhead]], which reads ''Raunijaz'' ("tester") in [[Proto-Norse language|North Proto-Germanic]], one of the earliest written samples of a Germanic language.]]
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In addition to isolation, lexical differences between English and other Germanic languages exist due to [[Historical linguistics|diachronic change]], [[Semantic change|semantic drift]], and to substantial borrowing in English of words from other languages, especially Latin and French (though borrowing is in no way unique to English). For example, compare "exit" (Latin), vs. Dutch ''uitgang'' and German ''Ausgang'' (literally "out-going", though ''[[wikt:outgang#English|outgang]]'' continues to survive dialectally) and "change" (French) vs. Dutch ''verandering'' and German ''Änderung'' (literally "elsing, othering", i.e. "alteration"); "movement" (French) vs. Dutch ''beweging'' and German ''Bewegung'' ("''[[wikt:beway|beway]]''-ing", i.e. "proceeding along the way"); etc. With the exception of ''exit'' (a Modern English borrowing), Middle English had already distanced itself from other Germanic languages, having the terms ''wharf'', ''schift'' (="shift"), and ''wending'' for "change"; and already by Old English times the word ''bewegan'' meant "to cover, envelop", rather than "to move". Preference of one synonym over another also causes differentiation in lexis, even where both words are Germanic, as in English ''care'' vs. German ''Sorge''. Both words descend from [[Proto-Germanic]] *''karō'' and *''surgō'' respectively, but *''karō'' has become the dominant word in English for "care" while in German, Dutch, and Scandinavian languages, the *''surgō'' root prevailed. *''Surgō'' still survives in English, however, as ''sorrow''.
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Despite extensive lexical borrowing, the workings of the English language are resolutely Germanic, and English is rightly classified as a Germanic language due to its structure and grammar. Borrowed words get incorporated into a Germanic system of conjugation, declension, and syntax, and behave exactly as though they were native Germanic words from Old English. For example, the word ''reduce'' is borrowed from Latin ''redūcere''; however, in English one says ''"I reduc'''e''' – I reduc'''ed''' – I '''will''' reduc'''e'''"'' rather than ''"redūc'''ō''' – redū'''xī''' – redūc'''am'''"''; likewise, we say: ''"John''''s''' life insurance company"'' (cf. Dutch ''"John'''s''' levensverzekeringsmaatschappij" [= leven (life) + verzekering (insurance) + maatschappij (company)]'' rather than ''"the company of insurance life of John"'', cf. the French: ''la compagnie d'assurance-vie de John''). Furthermore, in English, all basic grammatical particles added to nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are Germanic. For nouns, these include the normal plural marker ''-s''/''-es'' (''apple – apple'''s'''''; cf. Frisian ''appel – appel'''s'''''; Dutch ''appel – appel'''s'''''; Afrikaans ''appel – appel'''s'''''), and the possessive markers '' -'s'' (''Brad''''s''' hat''; German ''Brad'''s''' Hut''; Danish ''Brad'''s''' hat'') and ''-s' ''.
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For verbs, these include the third-person present ending ''-s''/''-es'' (e.g. ''he stand'''s'''''/''he reach'''es''''' ), the present participle ending ''-ing'' (cf. Dutch ''-ende''; German ''-end(e)''), the simple past tense and past participle ending ''-ed'' (Swedish ''-ade''/''-ad''), and the formation of the English infinitive using ''to'' (e.g. "'''''to''''' drive"; cf. Old English '''''tō''''' drīfenne; Dutch '''''te''' drijven''; Low German '''''to''' drieven''; German '''''zu''' treiben''). Adverbs generally receive an ''-ly'' ending (cf. German ''-lich''; Swedish ''-ligt''), and adjectives and adverbs are inflected for the comparative and superlative using ''-er'' and ''-est'' (e.g. ''hard/hard'''er'''/hard'''est'''''; cf. Dutch ''hard/hard'''er'''/hard'''st'''''), or through a combination with ''more'' and ''most'' (cf. Swedish ''mer'' and ''mest''). These particles append freely to all English words regardless of origin (''tsunami'''s'''; communicate'''s'''; '''to''' buccaneer; dur'''ing'''; calm'''er'''; bizarre'''ly''''') and all derive from Old English. Even the lack or absence of affixes, known as [[Null morpheme|zero or null (-Ø) affixes]], derives from endings that previously existed in Old English (usually ''-e, -a, -u, -o, -an,'' etc.), that later weakened to ''-e'', and have since ceased to be pronounced and spelt (e.g. Modern English ''"I sing"'' = ''I sing-Ø'' < ''I singe'' < Old English ''ic sing'''e'''''; ''"we thought"'' = ''we thought-Ø'' < ''we thoughte(n)'' < Old English ''wē þōht'''on''''').
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===Impact of Old Norse===
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Due to the Viking colonisation and influence of Old Norse on Middle English, English syntax follows a pattern similar to that of North Germanic languages, such as Danish, Swedish, and Icelandic, in contrast with other West Germanic languages, such as Dutch and German. This is especially evident in the order and placement of verbs. For example, English "I '''will''' never '''see''' you again" = Danish "Jeg '''vil''' aldrig '''se''' dig igen"; Icelandic "Ég '''mun''' aldrei '''sjá''' þig aftur", whereas in Dutch and German the main verb is placed at the end (e.g. Dutch "Ik '''zal''' je nooit weer '''zien'''"; German "Ich '''werde''' dich nie wieder '''sehen'''", literally, "I '''will''' you never again '''see'''"). This is also observable in [[perfect tense]] constructions, as in English "I '''have''' never '''seen''' anything in the square" = Danish "Jeg '''har''' aldrig '''set''' noget på torvet"; Icelandic "Ég '''hef''' aldrei '''séð''' neitt á torginu", where Dutch and German place the past participle at the end (e.g. Dutch "Ik '''heb''' nooit iets op het plein '''gezien'''"; German "Ich '''habe''' nie etwas auf dem Platz '''gesehen'''", literally, "I '''have''' never anything in the square '''seen'''"). As in most Germanic languages, English adjectives usually come before the noun they modify, even when the adjective is of Latinate origin (e.g. ''medical emergency, national treasure''). English continues to make extensive use of [[English compound|self-explaining compounds]] (e.g. ''streetcar, classroom'') and nouns that serve as modifiers (e.g. ''lamp post, life insurance company'') – traits inherited from Old English (See also [[Kenning]]).
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The kinship with other Germanic languages can also be seen in the tensing of English verbs (e.g. English ''fall/fell/fallen/will or shall fall'', West Frisian ''fal/foel/fallen/sil falle'', Dutch ''vallen/viel/gevallen/zullen vallen'', German ''fallen/fiel/gefallen/werden fallen'', Norwegian ''faller/falt/falt or falne/vil or skal falle''), the comparatives of adjectives and adverbs (e.g. English ''good/better/best'', West Frisian ''goed/better/best'', Dutch ''goed/beter/best'', German ''gut/besser/best''), the treatment of nouns (English ''shoemaker, shoemaker's, shoemakers, shoemakers'''; Dutch ''schoenmaker, schoenmakers, schoenmakers, schoenmakeren''; Swedish ''skomakare, skomakares, skomakare, skomakares''),  and the large amount of [[cognate]]s (e.g. English ''wet'', Scots ''weet'', West Frisian ''wiet'', Swedish ''våt''; English ''send'', Dutch ''zenden'', German ''senden''; English ''meaning'', Swedish ''mening'', Icelandic ''meining'', etc.).
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It occasionally gives rise to [[false friend]]s (e.g. English ''time'' vs Norwegian ''time'', meaning "hour" [i.e. "a specific amount of time"]; English ''gift'' vs German ''Gift'', meaning "poison" [i.e. "that which is given, dosage, dose"]), while differences in phonology can obscure words that really are related (''tooth'' vs. German ''Zahn''; compare also Danish ''tand'', North Frisian ''toth''). Sometimes both semantics ''and'' phonology are different (German ''Zeit'' and Dutch "tijd" ("time") are related to English "tide", but the English word, through a transitional phase of meaning "period"/"interval", has come primarily to mean gravitational effects on the ocean by the moon (formerly expressed by ''[[wikt:ebb|ebb]]''), though the original meaning is preserved in forms like ''tidings'' and ''betide'', and phrases such as ''to tide over'').{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} However, a few other Germanic languages, more closely related to English than German, also share this same semantic shift, namely [[Low German]] (''Tīde'' = "tide of the sea") and Dutch (''getijde, tij'' = "tide of the sea").
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Some [[List of English words of Old Norse origin|North Germanic words entered English from the settlement of Viking raiders and Danish invasions]] that began around the 9th century (see [[Danelaw]]). Many of these words are common and are often mistaken for being native, which shows how close-knit the relations between the English and the Scandinavian settlers were (''see below: [[English language#Words of Old Norse origin|Words of Old Norse origin]]''). Dutch and Low German also had a considerable influence on English vocabulary, contributing common everyday terms and many nautical and trading terms (''see below: [[English language#Words of Dutch and Low German origin|Words of Dutch and Low German origin]]'').
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There are a [[List of English words of Scandinavian origin|some words in English, that probably are of Scandinavian origin, other than Old Norse]], but which are difficult to trace more exactly.
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===Comparison to other Germanic languages===
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English has been forming compound words and affixing existing words separately from the other Germanic languages for more than 1500 years but shows different patterns in this regard. For instance, abstract nouns in English may be formed from native words by the suffixes "‑hood", "-ship", "-dom" and "-ness". All of these suffixes have cognates in most or all other Germanic languages, but their usage has diverged, as German "Freiheit" and Dutch "vrijheid" vs. English "freedom" (the suffix "-heit"/"-heid" being cognate with English "-hood", while English "-dom" is cognate with German "-tum" and Dutch "-dom"; but note [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]] ''fridoem'' and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ''fridom'', "freedom"). The Germanic languages Icelandic and Faroese also follow English in this respect, since, like English, they developed independent of German influences.
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===French===
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Many [[French language|French]] words are also intelligible to an English speaker, especially when they are seen in writing (as pronunciations are often quite different), because English absorbed a large number of lexical terms from [[Norman language|Norman]], via [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] after the Norman Conquest, and directly from French in subsequent centuries. As a result, a large portion of English vocabulary is made up of words derived from French, with some minor spelling differences (e.g. inflectional endings, use of old French spellings, lack of [[diacritic]]s, etc.), as well as occasional divergences in meaning of so-called false friends: for example, compare "[[library]]" with the French ''librairie'', which means [[bookselling|bookstore]]; in French, the word for "library" is ''bibliothèque''. The pronunciation of most [[List of English words of French origin|French loanwords in English]] (with the exception of a handful of more recently borrowed words such as ''mirage'', ''genre'', ''café''; or phrases like ''coup d'état'', ''rendez-vous'', etc.) has become largely anglicised and follows a typically English phonology and pattern of stress (compare English "nature" vs. French ''nature'', "button" vs. ''bouton'', "table" vs. ''table'', "hour" vs. ''heure'', "reside" vs. ''résider'', etc.).
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{{anchor|Geographic distribution}}
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==Geographical distribution==
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{{main|English-speaking world}}
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{{See also|List of countries where English is an official language|List of countries by English-speaking population|British Empire}}
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{{Pie chart
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|caption = Pie chart showing the relative proportions of native English speakers in the major English-speaking countries of the world.
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|other = yes
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|value1 = {{#expr:292/430*100 round 1}}
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|label1 = US
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|color1 = Navy
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|value2 = {{#expr:60/430*100 round 1}}
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|label2 = UK
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|color2 = SteelBlue
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|value3 = {{#expr:29/430*100 round 1}}
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|label3 = Canada
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|color3 = IndianRed
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|value4 = {{#expr:18/430*100 round 1}}
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|label4 = Australia
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|color4 = LightSeaGreen
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|value5 = {{#expr:4/430*100 round 1}}
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|label5 = Nigeria
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|color5 = DarkGreen
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|value6 = {{#expr:3.8/430*100 round 1}}
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|label6 = Ireland
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|color6 = #FF7900
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|value7 = {{#expr:3.7/430*100 round 1}}
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|label7 = South Africa
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|color7 = black
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|value8 = {{#expr:4/430*100 round 1}}
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|label8 = New Zealand
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|color8 = #CC142B
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}}
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Approximately 430&nbsp;million people speak English as their [[first language]].<ref name="Crystal1"></ref> English today is probably the second largest language by number of native speakers, after [[Mandarin Chinese]].<ref name = "ethnologue">{{cite web|url=http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/top100.html |title=Ethnologue, 1999 |accessdate=31 October 2010 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/19990429232804/www.sil.org/ethnologue/top100.html |archivedate=29 April 1999}}</ref><ref name = "CIA World Factbook">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2098.html |title=CIA World Factbook, Field Listing&nbsp;– Languages (World) |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2013-04-20}}</ref> However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the [[Chinese language]]s (depending on whether distinctions in the latter are classified as "languages" or "dialects").<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm Languages of the World (Charts)], Comrie (1998), Weber (1997), and the Summer Institute for Linguistics (SIL) 1999 Ethnologue Survey. Available at [http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm The World's Most Widely Spoken Languages]</ref><ref name=Mair>{{cite journal|url=http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf|format=PDF|journal=Sino-Platonic Papers|last=Mair|first=Victor H.|authorlink=Victor H. Mair|title=What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic Terms|year=1991|ref=harv}}</ref>
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Estimates that include [[second language]] speakers vary greatly from 470&nbsp;million to more than a billion depending on how [[literacy]] or mastery is defined and measured.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://columbia.tfd.com/English+language |title=''English Language'' |accessdate=26 March 2007 |year=2005 |publisher=Columbia University Press }}</ref><ref>[http://www.oxfordseminars.com/graduate-career-assistance/esl-teaching-jobs.php 20,000 ESL Teaching Jobs] Oxford Seminars. Retrieved 17 April 2012</ref><ref name="Crystal2"></ref> Linguistics professor [[David Crystal]] calculates that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Crystal | first = David | author-link = David Crystal | title = English as a Global Language | edition = 2nd |publisher = Cambridge University Press | page = 69 | year = 2003 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC | isbn = 978-0-521-53032-3}}, cited in
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{{Cite journal | last = Power | first = Carla | title = Not the Queen's English | journal = Newsweek | date = 7 March 2005 | url = http://www.newsweek.com/id/49022 | ref = harv}}</ref>
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The countries with the highest populations of native English speakers are, in descending order: the [[United States]] (292&nbsp;million),<ref name="US speakers">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/06statab/pop.pdf|title=U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2003, Section 1 Population|format=PDF|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}} Table 47 gives the figure of 214,809,000 for those five years old and over who speak exclusively English at home. Based on the American Community Survey, these results exclude those living communally (such as college dormitories, institutions, and group homes), and by definition exclude native English speakers who speak more than one language at home.</ref> the [[United Kingdom]] (61&nbsp;million),<ref name="Crystal">{{cite web|url=http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521530334 |title=''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language''|edition=2nd|author= Crystal, David|location= Cambridge, UK|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year=1995}}</ref> Canada (18.2&nbsp;million),<ref name="Canada speakers">[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/language/Table401.cfm Population by mother tongue and age groups, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories–20% sample data], Census 2006, [[Statistics Canada]].</ref> [[Australia]] (15.5&nbsp;million),<ref name="Australia speakers">[http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?action=404&documentproductno=0&documenttype=Details&order=1&tabname=Details&areacode=0&issue=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&javascript=true&textversion=false&navmapdisplayed=true&breadcrumb=TLPD&&collection=Census&period=2006&productlabel=Language%20Spoken%20at%20Home%20by%20Sex%20-%20Time%20Series%20Statistics%20(1996,%202001,%202006%20Census%20Years)&producttype=Census%20Tables&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&topic=Language& Census Data from Australian Bureau of Statistics] Main Language Spoken at Home. The figure is the number of people who only speak English at home.</ref> Nigeria (4&nbsp;million),<ref>Figures are for speakers of [[Nigerian Pidgin]], an English-based pidgin or creole. Ihemere gives a range of roughly 3 to 5&nbsp;million native speakers; the midpoint of the range is used in the table. {{cite journal|author=Ihemere, Kelechukwu Uchechukwu|year= 2006|url=http://www.njas.helsinki.fi/pdf-files/vol15num3/ihemere.pdf |title=A Basic Description and Analytic Treatment of Noun Clauses in Nigerian Pidgin|journal=Nordic Journal of African Studies|volume= 15|issue=3|pages= 296–313}}</ref> Ireland (3.8&nbsp;million),<ref name="Crystal" /> South Africa (3.7&nbsp;million),<ref name="SA speakers">[http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/CinBrief/CinBrief2001.pdf Census in Brief], page 15 (Table 2.5), 2001 Census, [[Statistics South Africa]]</ref> and New Zealand (3.6&nbsp;million) in a 2006 Census.<ref>{{cite web |title=About people, Language spoken |url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2006-census-data/classification-counts-tables/about-people/language-spoken.aspx |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20091015063211/http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2006-census-data/classification-counts-tables/about-people/language-spoken.aspx |archivedate=2009-10-15 |publisher=[[Statistics New Zealand]] |date=2006 census |accessdate=28 September 2009}} (links to Microsoft Excel files)</ref>
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Countries such as the [[Philippines]], [[Jamaica]] and [[Nigeria]] also have millions of native speakers of [[dialect continuum|dialect continua]] ranging from an [[English-based creole languages|English-based creole]] to a more standard version of English. Of those nations where English is spoken as a second language, [[India]] has the most such speakers (''see'' [[Indian English]]). Crystal claims that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world.<ref>Crystal, David (2004-11-19) [http://education.guardian.co.uk/tefl/story/0,,1355064,00.html Subcontinent Raises Its Voice], ''Guardian Weekly''.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Zhao, Yong and Campbell, Keith P. |year=1995|title=English in China|journal= World Englishes |volume=14 |issue=3|pages= 377–390|quote= Hong Kong contributes an additional 2.5&nbsp;million speakers (1996 by-census)|doi=10.1111/j.1467-971X.1995.tb00080.x}}</ref>
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===Countries where English is a major language===
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{{Main| List of countries where English is an official language}}
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English is the primary language in [[Anguilla]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Australian English|Australia]], the [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Languages of Belize|Belize]], [[Bermuda]], the [[British Indian Ocean Territory]], the [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Canadian English|Canada]], the [[Cayman Islands]], [[Dominica]], the [[Falkland Islands]], [[Gibraltar]], [[Grenada]], [[Guam]], [[Channel Island English|Guernsey]], [[Guyana]], [[Hiberno-English|Ireland]], the [[Manx English|Isle of Man]], [[Jamaican English|Jamaica]], [[Jersey]], [[Montserrat]], [[Nauru]], [[New Zealand English|New Zealand]], [[Pitcairn Islands]], [[Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Singapore]], [[South Africa]], [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[the Turks and Caicos Islands]], the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]].
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In some countries where English is not the most spoken language, it is an [[official language]]. English is also an important language in several former colonies and [[protectorate]]s of the United Kingdom, such as [[Bahrain]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Brunei]], [[Cyprus]], [[Malaysia]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]].
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===English as a global language===
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[[Image:Anglospeak-percentage-knowledge.svg|thumb|300px|Percent of national populations with knowledge of English
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{{legend|#225500|80–100%}}
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{{legend|#44aa00|60–80%}}
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{{legend|#66ff00|40–60%}}
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{{legend|#99ff55|20–40%}}
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{{legend|#ccffaa| 0–20%}}]]
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{{See also|English in computing|International English|World Englishes|World language|English as a second or foreign language}}
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Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a "[[world language]]", the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the modern era,<ref name = "Graddol"/> and while it is not an official language in most countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a [[foreign language]].{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} It is, by international treaty, the official language for aeronautical<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icao.int/Newsroom/Pages/icao-promotes-aviation-safety-by-endorsing-english-language-testing.aspx |title=ICAO Promotes Aviation Safety by Endorsing English Language Testing |publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization|date=13 October 2011}}</ref> and maritime<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imo.org/Safety/index.asp?topic_id=357 |title=IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases |publisher=International Maritime Organization |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20031227092334/www.imo.org/Safety/index.asp?topic_id=357|archivedate=27 December 2003}}</ref> communications. English is one of the official languages of the [[United Nations]] and many other international organisations, including the [[International Olympic Committee]].
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This increasing use of the English language globally has had a large impact on many other languages, leading to [[language shift]] and even [[language death]],<ref>David Crystal (2000) Language Death, Preface; viii, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge</ref> and to claims of [[linguistic imperialism]].<ref name="one"/> English itself has become more open to [[language shift]] as multiple [[List of dialects of the English language|regional varieties]] feed back into the language as a whole.<ref name="one">{{cite journal|author=Jambor, Paul Z. |title=English Language Imperialism: Points of View|journal= Journal of English as an International Language|date=April 2007 |volume =2| pages =103–123|url=http://www.eilj.com/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&download=15:2-december-2007&id=3:free-journals}}</ref>
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==Dialects and varieties==
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{{Main| List of dialects of the English language}}
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English has been subject to a large degree of regional [[dialect]] variation for many centuries. Its global spread now means that a large number of dialects and English-based [[creole language]]s and [[pidgin]]s can be found all over the world.
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Several educated native dialects of English have wide acceptance as standards in much of the world. In the United Kingdom much emphasis is placed on [[Received Pronunciation]], an educated dialect of [[South East England]]. [[General American]], which is spread over most of the United States and much of Canada, is more typically the model for the American continents and areas (such as the Philippines) that have had either close association with the United States, or a desire to be so identified. In [[Oceania]], the major native dialect of [[Australian English]] is spoken as a first language by the vast majority of the inhabitants of the Australian continent, with [[General Australian]] serving as the standard accent. The [[New Zealand English|English of neighbouring New Zealand]] as well as [[South African English|that of South Africa]] have to a lesser degree been influential native varieties of the language.
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Aside from these major dialects, there are numerous other [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of English, which include, in most cases, several subvarieties, such as [[Cockney]], [[Scouse]] and [[Geordie]] within [[British English]]; [[Newfoundland English]] within [[Canadian English]]; and [[African American Vernacular English]] ("Ebonics") and [[Southern American English]] within [[American English]]. English is a [[pluricentric language]], without a central language authority like France's [[Académie française]]; and therefore no one variety is considered "correct" or "incorrect" except in terms of the expectations of the particular audience to which the language is directed.
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[[history of the Scots language|Scots]] has its origins in early Northern Middle English<ref>Aitken, A. J. and McArthur, T. Eds. (1979) ''Languages of Scotland''. Edinburgh,Chambers. p. 87, ISBN 0550202617.</ref> and developed and changed during its history with influence from other sources. However, following the [[Acts of Union 1707]] a process of [[language attrition]] began, whereby successive generations adopted more and more features from Standard English. Whether Scots is now a separate language or is better described as a dialect of English (i.e. part of [[Scottish English]]) is in dispute, although the UK government accepts Scots as a [[regional language]] and has recognised it as such under the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]].<ref>[http://www.coe.int/t/e/human_rights/minorities/2._framework_convention_%28monitoring%29/2._monitoring_mechanism/3._state_reports_and_unmik_kosovo_report/2._second_cycle/PDF_2nd_SR_UK_en.pdf Second Report submitted by the United Kingdom pursuant to article 25, paragraph 1 of the framework convention for the protection of national minorities]{{dead link|date=October 2010}}</ref> There are a number of regional dialects of Scots, and pronunciation, grammar and lexis of the traditional forms differ, sometimes substantially, from other varieties of English.
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English speakers have many different [[Accent (dialect)|accents]], which often signal the speaker's native dialect or language. For the most distinctive characteristics of regional accents, see [[Regional accents of English]], and for a complete list of regional dialects, see [[List of dialects of the English language]]. Within England, variation is now largely confined to pronunciation rather than grammar or vocabulary. At the time of the [[Survey of English Dialects]], grammar and vocabulary differed across the country, but a process of ''lexical attrition'' has led most of this variation to die out.<ref>Trudgill, Peter (2002) ''The Dialects of England'' 2nd edition, p. 125, Blackwell, Oxford, ISBN 0631218149.</ref>
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Just as English itself has borrowed words from many different languages over its history, English [[loanword]]s now appear in many languages around the world, indicative of the technological and cultural influence of its speakers. Several [[pidgin]]s and [[creole language]]s have been formed on an English base, such as [[Jamaican (language)|Jamaican Patois]], [[Nigerian Pidgin]], and [[Tok Pisin]]. There are many words in English coined to describe forms of particular non-English languages that contain a very high proportion of English words.
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===Register effects===
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It is well-established<ref>Quirk, R. (1974). The linguist and the English language. London: Arnold. p. 138.</ref> that informal [[Register (sociolinguistics)|speech registers]] tend to be made up predominantly of words of Anglo-Saxon or Germanic origin, whereas the proportion of the vocabulary that is of Latinate origins is likely to be higher in legal, scientific, and otherwise scholarly or academic texts.<!--Formal text, as well, predominantly comprises words of Germanic origin ... Quirk has been misunderstood or he is just plain wrong.-->
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[[Child-directed speech]], which is an informal speech register, also tends to rely heavily on vocabulary rife in words derived from Anglo-Saxon. The speech of mothers to young children has a higher percentage of native Anglo-Saxon verb tokens than speech addressed to adults.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Phillips, J. |year=1973|title=Syntax and vocabulary of mothers' speech to young children: Age and sex comparisons|journal= Child Development|volume= 44|pages= 182–185|url=https://umdrive.memphis.edu/awarlmnt/AUSP70068006-fall-2009/Assignments/assignment2/Philips%201973.pdf|jstor=1127699|doi=10.2307/1127699}}</ref> In particular, in parents' child-directed speech the clausal core  <ref>Foley, W. A. and Van Valin, R. D. Jr. (1984). Functional syntax and universal grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521269040.</ref> is built in the most part by Anglo-Saxon verbs, namely, almost all tokens of the [[grammatical relations]] subject-verb, verb-direct object and verb-indirect object that young children are presented with, are constructed with native verbs.<ref name="Ninio">Ninio, A. (2011). Syntactic development, its input and output. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.com/pdf/13/9780199565962_prelim.pdf Introduction], ISBN 0199565961.</ref> The Anglo-Saxon verb vocabulary consists of short verbs, but its grammar is relatively complex. Syntactic patterns specific to this sub-vocabulary in present-day English include periphrastic constructions for tense, aspect, questioning and negation, and phrasal lexemes functioning as complex predicates, all of which also occur in child-directed speech.
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The historical origin of vocabulary items affects the order of acquisition of various aspects of [[language development]] in English-speaking children.  Latinate vocabulary is in general a later acquisition in children than the native Anglo-Saxon one.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Anglin, J. M. |year=1993|title= Vocabulary development: A morphological analysis|journal= Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development|volume= 58|page= 238|jstor=1166112|doi=10.2307/1166112|last2=Miller|first2=George A.|last3=Wakefield|first3=Pamela C.|issue=10}}</ref><ref>Clark, E. V. (1993). The lexicon in acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521484642.</ref> Young children almost exclusively use the native verb vocabulary in constructing basic grammatical relations, apparently mastering its analytic aspects at an early stage.<ref name="Ninio" />
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===Formal written English===
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{{Main| Formal written English}}
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A version of the language almost universally agreed upon by educated English-speakers around the world is called formal written English. It takes virtually the same form regardless of where it is written, in contrast to spoken English, which differs significantly between [[dialect]]s, [[Accent (dialect)|accents]], and varieties of [[slang]] and of colloquial and regional expressions. Local variations in the formal written version of the language are quite limited, being restricted largely to minor spelling, lexical and grammatical differences between different national varieties of English (e.g. [[American and British English differences|British, American]], [[Indian English|Indian]], [[Australian English|Australian]], [[South African English|South African]], etc.).
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===Simplified and constructed varieties===
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Artificially simplified versions of the language have been created that are easier for non-native speakers to read.  ''[[Basic English]]'' is a [[constructed language]], with a restricted number of words, created by [[Charles Kay Ogden]] and described in his book ''Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar'' (1930).  Ogden said that it would take seven years to learn English, seven months for [[Esperanto]], and seven weeks for Basic English.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}  Thus, Basic English may be employed by companies that need to make complex books for international use, as well as by language schools that need to impart some knowledge of English in a short time.
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Ogden did not include any words in Basic English that could be said instead with a combination of other words already in the Basic English lexicon, and he worked to make the vocabulary suitable for speakers of any other language.  He put his vocabulary selections through a large number of tests and adjustments. Ogden also simplified the grammar but tried to keep it normal for English users. Although it was not built into a program, similar simplifications were devised for various international uses.
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[[Simplified English]] is a [[controlled natural language|controlled language]] originally developed for aerospace industry maintenance manuals. It employs a carefully limited and standardised<ref>{{cite web |title=Official page of ASD Simplified Technical English Maintenance Group (STEMG) |url=http://www.asd-ste100.org/}}</ref> subset of English. Simplified English has a lexicon of approved words and those words can only be used in certain ways. For example, the word ''close'' can be used in the phrase "Close the door" but not "do not go close to the landing gear".
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Other constructed varieties of English include:
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* [[E-Prime]] excludes forms of the verb ''to be''.
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* [[English spelling reform|English reform]] is an attempt to improve collectively upon the English language.
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* [[Manually Coded English]] consists of a variety of systems that have been developed to represent the English language with hand signals, designed primarily for use in deaf education. These should not be confused with true sign languages such as [[British Sign Language]] and [[American Sign Language]] used in Anglophone countries, which are independent and not based on English.
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* [[Seaspeak]] and the related Airspeak and [[PoliceSpeak]], all based on restricted vocabularies, were designed by Edward Johnson starting from the 1980s to aid international cooperation and communication in specific areas.
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* [[Special English]] is a simplified version of English used by the [[Voice of America]]. It uses a vocabulary of only 1500 words.
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==Phonology==
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{{Main| English phonology}}
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The [[phonology]] (sound system) of English differs between dialects. The descriptions below are most closely applicable to the [[standard language|standard varieties]] known as [[Received Pronunciation]] (RP) and [[General American]]. For information concerning a range of other varieties, see [[IPA chart for English dialects]].
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===Consonants===
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The table below shows the system of consonant [[phoneme]]s that functions in most major varieties of English. The symbols are from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA), and are used in the pronunciation keys of many dictionaries. For more detailed information see {{p/s|English phonology|Consonants}}.
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
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|-style="font-size: 90%;"
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|+Consonant phonemes
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!
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! colspan=2 | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
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! colspan=2 | [[Labiodental consonant|Labio-<br>dental]]
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! colspan=2 | [[Interdental consonant|Dental]]
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! colspan=2 | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
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! colspan=2 | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]
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! colspan=2 | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
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! colspan=2 | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
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! colspan=2 | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
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|-
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! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
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|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|m}}
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|n}}
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
|-
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−
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
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−
| style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|p}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|b}}
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|t}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|d}}
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|k}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
|-
+
−
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
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−
| colspan=2 |
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−
| colspan=2 |
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|tʃ}}||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|dʒ}}
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
|-
+
−
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|f}}||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|v}}
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−
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|θ}}||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ð}}
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−
| style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|s}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|z}}
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−
| style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|ʃ}}||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|ʒ}}
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| style="border-right: 0;"|({{IPA link|x}})||style="border-left: 0;"|
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−
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPA link|h}}||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|
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−
|-
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! rowspan=2 | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br>([[Lateral consonant|Lateral]])
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−
| colspan=2 |
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−
| colspan=2 |
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA|r}}
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
|width=20px style="border-right: 0;"| ||width=20px style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|j}}
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−
| style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|w}}
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
|-
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| style="border-right: 0;"| ||style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPA link|l}}
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−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
| colspan=2 |
+
−
|}
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Where consonants are given in pairs (as with "p b"), the first is [[voiceless consonant|voiceless]], the second is voiced. Most of the symbols represent the same sounds as they normally do when used as letters (see {{p/s|Writing system}} below), but {{IPA|/j/}} represents the initial sound of '''''y'''acht''. The symbol {{IPA|/ʃ/}} represents the ''sh'' sound, {{IPA|/ʒ/}} the middle sound of ''vi'''si'''on'', {{IPA|/tʃ/}} the ''ch'' sound, {{IPA|/dʒ/}} the sound of ''j'' in '''''j'''ump'', {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} the ''th'' sounds in '''''th'''ing'' and '''''th'''is'' respectively, and {{IPA|/ŋ/}} the ''ng'' sound in ''si'''ng'''''. The [[voiceless velar fricative]] {{IPA|/x/}} is not a regular phoneme in most varieties of English, although it is used by some speakers in Scots/Gaelic words such as [[loch|''lo'''ch''''']] or in other loanwords such as [[Chanuka|'''''Ch'''anukah'']].
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Some of the more significant variations in the pronunciation of consonants are these:
+
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* In [[Rhoticity in English|non-rhotic varieties]] of English (the southern British [[Received Pronunciation|standard]] and related dialects), {{IPA|/r/}} has been lost except before vowels (still pronounced in "real", "very", but not in "car", "cart").<ref>Lass (1999): 114.</ref> The actual pronunciation of {{IPA|/r/}} varies between dialects; most common is the alveolar approximant {{IPA|[ɹ]}}.
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* In [[North American English]] and [[Australian English]], {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} are [[flapping|flapped]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} in many positions between vowels.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cox |first=Felicity |year=2006 |title=Australian English Pronunciation into the 21st century |url=http://www.shlrc.mq.edu.au/~felicity/Papers/Prospect_Erratum_v1.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=22 July 2007 |journal=Prospect |volume=21 |pages=3–21 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070724185054/http://www.shlrc.mq.edu.au/~felicity/Papers/Prospect_Erratum_v1.pdf |archivedate = 24 July 2007|ref=harv}}</ref> This means that word pairs such as ''latter'' and ''ladder'' may approach homophones for speakers of these dialects.
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* The ''th'' sounds {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} are sometimes pronounced as {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/v/}} in [[Cockney]], and as [[dental stop|dental plosives]] (contrasting with the usual alveolar plosives) in some Irish varieties. In [[African American Vernacular English]], {{IPA|/ð/}} has merged with dental {{IPA|/d/}}.
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* A [[voiceless labiovelar approximant|voiceless w]], {{IPA|[ʍ]}}, sometimes written {{IPA|/hw/}}, for the ''wh'' in words like '''''wh'''en'' and '''''wh'''ich'', is preserved in Scottish and Irish English and by some speakers elsewhere.
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* The voiceless plosives {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} are frequently [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]], particularly at the start of stressed syllables, but they are not aspirated after an initial {{IPA|/s/}}, as in ''spin''.
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===Vowels===
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The system of [[vowel]] phonemes and their pronunciation is subject to significant variation between dialects. The table below lists the vowels found in Received Pronunciation (RP) and General American, with examples of words in which they occur. The vowels are represented with symbols from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]; those given for RP are in relatively standard use in British dictionaries and other publications. For more detailed information see {{p/s|English phonology|Vowels}}.
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{|
+
−
|-
+
−
| valign="top" |
+
−
{| class="wikitable"
+
−
|-
+
−
![[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GAm]] !! word
+
−
|-
+
−
! colspan="3" style="text-align:left; background:#dedede"| [[monophthong]]s
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|iː}}  || {{IPA|i}} || n'''ee'''d
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−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|ɪ}}  || {{IPA|ɪ}} || b'''i'''d
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−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|e}} || {{IPA|ɛ}} || b'''e'''d
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|æ}} || {{IPA|æ}} || b'''a'''ck
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|ɒ}} || ({{IPA|ɑ}}) || b'''o'''x
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|ɔː}} || {{IPA|ɔ}} || p'''aw'''
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|ɑː}} || {{IPA|ɑ}} || br'''a'''
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−
|}
+
−
| valign="top" |
+
−
{| class="wikitable"
+
−
|-
+
−
![[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GAm]] !! word
+
−
|-
+
−
! colspan="3" style="text-align:left; background:#dedede"| [[monophthong]]s (cont.)
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|ʊ}} || {{IPA|ʊ}} || g'''oo'''d
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−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|uː}} || {{IPA|u}} || f'''oo'''d
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|ʌ}} || {{IPA|ʌ}} || b'''u'''t
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|ɜː}} || {{IPA|ɜr}} || b'''ir'''d
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA link|ə}} || {{IPA|ə}} || comm'''a'''
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−
|-
+
−
| ({{IPA|ɪ}}) || {{IPA link|ɨ}} || ros'''e'''s
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−
|}
+
−
| valign="top" |
+
−
{| class="wikitable"
+
−
|-
+
−
![[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GAm]] !! word
+
−
|-
+
−
! colspan="3" style="text-align:left; background:#dedede"| [[diphthong]]s
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA|eɪ}} || {{IPA|eɪ}} || b'''ay'''
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA|əʊ}} || {{IPA|oʊ}} || r'''oa'''d
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA|aɪ}} || {{IPA|aɪ}} || cr'''y'''
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA|aʊ}} || {{IPA|aʊ}} || c'''ow'''
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || b'''oy'''
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−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA|ɪə}} || {{IPA|(ɪr)}} || f'''ear'''
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA|ɛə}} || {{IPA|(ɛr)}} || f'''air'''
+
−
|-
+
−
| {{IPA|ʊə}} || {{IPA|(ʊr)}} || l'''ure'''
+
−
|}
+
−
|}
+
−
 
+
−
Some points to note:
+
−
* For words which in RP have {{IPA|/ɒ/}}, most North American dialects have {{IPA|/ɑ/}} (as in the example of ''b'''o'''x'' above) or {{IPA|/ɔ/}} (as in ''cl'''o'''th''). However some North American varieties do not have the vowel {{IPA|/ɔ/}} at all (except before {{IPA|/r/}}); see [[cot–caught merger|''cot–caught'' merger]].
+
−
* In present-day Received Pronunciation, the realisation of the /æ/ phoneme is more open than the symbol suggests, and is closer to [a], as in most other accents in Britain. The sound [æ] is now found only in conservative RP.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gimson, ed. A. Cruttenden|title=Pronunciation of English|publisher=Hodder|year=2008|pages=112–3}}</ref>
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−
* In General American and some other [[rhotic accent]]s, the combination of vowel+{{IPA|/r/}} is often realised as an [[r-colored vowel|r-coloured vowel]]. For example, ''butt'''er''''' {{IPA|/ˈbʌtər/}} is pronounced with an r-coloured schwa, {{IPA|[ɚ]}}. Similarly ''n'''ur'''se'' contains the r-coloured vowel {{IPA|[ɝ]}}.
+
−
* The vowel conventionally written {{IPA|/ʌ/}} is actually pronounced more centrally, as [{{IPA link|ɐ}}], in RP. In the northern half of England this vowel is replaced by {{IPA|/ʊ/}} (so ''cut'' rhymes with ''put'').
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* In [[stress (linguistics)|unstressed]] syllables there may or may not be a distinction between {{IPA|/ə/}} ([[schwa]]) and {{IPA|/ɪ/}} ({{IPA|/ɨ/}}). So for some speakers there is no difference between ''ros'''e'''s'' and ''Ros'''a''''s''. For more information see [[Reduced vowels in English]].
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−
* The diphthongs {{IPA|/eɪ/}} and {{IPA|/əʊ/}} ({{IPA|/oʊ/}}) tend towards the monophthongal pronunciations {{IPA|[eː]}} and {{IPA|[oː]}} in some dialects, including Canadian, Scottish, Irish and Northern English.
+
−
* In parts of North America {{IPA|/aɪ/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[ʌɪ]}} before voiceless consonants. This is particularly true in Canada, where also {{IPA|/aʊ/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[ʌʊ]}} in this position. See [[Canadian raising]].
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* The sound {{IPA|/ʊə/}} is coming to be replaced by {{IPA|/ɔː/}} in many words; for example, ''sure'' is often pronounced like ''shore''. See [[English-language vowel changes before historic r]].
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+
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===Stress, rhythm and intonation===
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English is a strongly [[stress (linguistics)|stressed]] language. In [[content word]]s of any number of syllables, as well as [[function word]]s of more than one syllable, there will be at least one syllable with lexical stress. An example of this is '''''ci'''vili'''za'''tion'', in which the first and fourth syllables carry stress, and the other syllables are unstressed.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, see entry "civilisation"</ref> The position of stress in English words is not predictable. English also has strong [[prosodic stress]]: typically the last stressed syllable of a phrase receives extra emphasis, but this may also occur on words to which a speaker wishes to draw attention. As regards [[rhythm]], English is classed as a [[stress-timed]] language: one in which there is a tendency for the time intervals between stressed syllables to become equal, and therefore to shorten unstressed syllables. It is uncertain when English became stress-timed, but as most other surviving Germanic languages are it may date to before the breakup of proto-West Germanic.
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Stress in English is sometimes [[phoneme|phonemic]]; that is, capable of distinguishing words. In particular, many words used as verbs and nouns have developed different stress patterns for each use: for example, ''increase'' is stressed on the first [[syllable]] as a noun, giving '''''in'''crease'', but on the second syllable as a verb, giving ''in'''crease'''''; see also [[Initial-stress-derived noun]].  Closely related to stress in English is the process of [[vowel reduction]]; for example, in the noun '''''con'''tract'' the first syllable is stressed and contains the vowel {{IPA|/ɒ/}} (in RP), whereas in the verb ''con'''tract''''' the first syllable is unstressed and its vowel is reduced to {{IPA|/ə/}} ([[schwa]]).<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, see entry "contract"</ref> The same process applies to certain common [[function word]]s like ''of'', which are pronounced with different vowels depending on whether or not they are stressed within the sentence. For more details, see [[Reduced vowels in English]]. Despite these practices, phonemic stress in English is generally a convention rather than essential to distinguish homophones: in both these examples, whether the word is being used as a noun or verb should normally be clear from context.
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+
−
As concerns [[intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], the pitch of the voice is used [[syntax|syntactically]] in English; for example, to convey whether the speaker is certain or uncertain about the polarity: most varieties of English use falling pitch for definite statements, and rising pitch to express uncertainty, as in [[yes–no question]]s. There is also a characteristic change of pitch on strongly stressed syllables, particularly on the "nuclear" (most strongly stressed) syllable in a sentence or intonation group. For more details see {{p/s|Intonation (linguistics)|Intonation in English}}.
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+
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==Grammar==
+
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{{Main| English grammar}}
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English grammar has minimal [[inflection]] compared with most other [[Indo-European languages]]. For example, Modern English, unlike Modern German or Dutch and the [[Romance languages]], lacks [[grammatical gender]] and [[agreement (linguistics)|adjectival agreement]]. [[Grammatical case|Case]] marking has almost disappeared from the language and mainly survives in [[pronoun]]s. The patterning of [[strong inflection|strong]] (e.g. ''speak/spoke/spoken'') versus [[Germanic weak verb|weak verbs]] (e.g. ''love/loved'' or ''kick/kicked'') inherited from its Germanic origins has declined in importance in modern English, and the remnants of inflection (such as [[plural]] marking) have become more regular.
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At the same time, the language has become more [[Isolating language|analytic]], and has developed features such as [[English modal verb|modal verbs]] and [[word order]] as resources for conveying meaning. [[Auxiliary verb]]s mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the [[Grammatical voice|passive voice]] and progressive [[grammatical aspect|aspect]]. English word order has moved from the Germanic [[V2 word order]] to being almost exclusively [[subject-verb-object]]; as English makes extensive use of auxiliary verbs, this will often create clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sentence, such as ''"he had hoped to try to open it"''. The long literary history of English has also created many conventions regarding the use of techniques such as [[verbal noun]]s and [[relative clause]]s to express complex ideas in formal writing.
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==Vocabulary==
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English vocabulary has changed considerably over the centuries.<ref>For the processes and triggers of English vocabulary changes cf. [http://www1.ku-eichstaett.de/SLF/EngluVglSW/OnOnMon1.pdf ''English and General Historical Lexicology'' (by Joachim Grzega and Marion Schöner)]</ref>
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Like many languages deriving from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE), many of the most common words in English can trace back their origin (through the Germanic branch) to PIE. Such words include the basic pronouns ''I'', from [[Old English language|Old English]] ''ic'', (cf. German ''Ich'', Gothic ''ik'', Latin ''ego'', Greek ''ego'', Sanskrit ''aham''), ''me'' (cf. German ''mich, mir'', Gothic ''mik, mīs'', Latin ''mē'', Greek ''eme'', Sanskrit ''mam''), numbers (e.g. ''one'', ''two'', ''three'', cf. Dutch ''een'', ''twee'', ''drie'', Gothic ''ains'', ''twai'', ''threis (þreis)'', Latin ''ūnus, duo, trēs'', Greek ''oinos'' "ace (on dice)", ''duo, treis''), common family relationships such as mother, father, brother, sister etc. (cf. Dutch ''moeder'', Greek ''meter'', Latin ''mater'', Sanskrit ''matṛ''; ''mother''), names of many animals (cf. German ''Maus'', Dutch ''muis'', Sanskrit ''mus'', Greek ''mus'', Latin ''mūs''; ''mouse''), and many common verbs (cf. Old High German ''knājan'', Old Norse ''kná'', Greek ''gignōmi'', Latin ''gnoscere'', Hittite ''kanes'';'' to know'').
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Germanic words (generally words of Old English or to a lesser extent Old Norse origin) tend to be shorter than Latinate words, and are more common in ordinary speech, and include nearly all the basic pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, modal verbs etc. that form the basis of English syntax and grammar. The shortness of the words is generally due to [[Syncope (phonetics)|syncope]] in Middle English (e.g. OldEng ''hēafod'' > ModEng ''head'', OldEng ''sāwol'' > ModEng ''soul'') and to the loss of final syllables due to stress (e.g. OldEng ''gamen'' > ModEng ''game'', OldEng ''ǣrende'' > ModEng ''errand''), not because Germanic words are inherently shorter than Latinate words (the lengthier, higher-register words of Old English were largely forgotten following the subjugation of English after the Norman Conquest, and most of the Old English lexis devoted to literature, the arts, and sciences ceased to be productive when it fell into disuse. Only the shorter, more direct, words of Old English tended to pass into the Modern language.)
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Consequently, those words which tend to be regarded as elegant or educated in Modern English are usually Latinate. However, the excessive use of Latinate words is considered at times to be either pretentious or an attempt to [[Obfuscation|obfuscate]] an issue. [[George Orwell]]'s essay "[[Politics and the English Language]]", considered an important scrutinisation of the English language, is critical of this, as well as other perceived misuses of the language.
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An English speaker is in many cases able to choose between Germanic and Latinate synonyms: ''come'' or ''arrive''; ''sight'' or ''vision''; ''freedom'' or ''liberty''. In some cases, there is a choice between a Germanic derived word (''oversee''), a Latin derived word (''supervise''), and a French word derived from the same Latin word (''survey''); or even Germanic words [[Anglo-Norman language|derived from Norman French]] (e.g., ''warranty'') and Parisian French (''guarantee''), and even choices involving multiple Germanic and Latinate sources are possible: ''sickness'' (Old English), ''ill'' (Old Norse), ''infirmity'' (French), ''affliction'' (Latin). Such synonyms harbour a variety of different meanings and nuances. Yet the ability to choose between multiple synonyms is not a consequence of French and Latin influence, as this same richness existed in English prior to the extensive borrowing of French and Latin terms. Old English was extremely resourceful in its ability to express synonyms and shades of meaning on its own, in many respects rivaling or exceeding that of Modern English (synonyms numbering in the thirties for certain concepts were not uncommon).
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Take for instance the various ways to express the word "astronomer" or "astrologer" in Old English: ''tunglere, tungolcræftiga, tungolwītega, tīdymbwlātend, tīdscēawere''.<ref>[[#Baugh|Baugh]], p. 50.</ref> In Modern English, however, the roles of such synonyms have largely been replaced by equivalents taken from Latin, French, and Greek, as English has taken the position of a diminished reliance upon native elements and resources for the creation of new words and terminologies. Familiarity with the etymology of groups of synonyms can give English speakers greater control over their [[register (sociolinguistics)|linguistic register]]. See: [[List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English]], [[Doublet (linguistics)]].
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A commonly noted area where Germanic and French-derived words coexist is that of domestic or game animals and the meats produced from them. The nouns for meats are often different from, and unrelated to, those for the corresponding animals, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French-derived one. Examples include: ''deer'' and ''venison''; ''cow'' and ''beef''; ''swine''/''pig'' and ''pork''; and ''sheep''/''lamb'' and ''[[lamb and mutton|mutton]]''. This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the [[Norman conquest of England]], where an Anglo-Norman-speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by lower classes, which happened to be largely Anglo-Saxon, although a similar duality can also be seen in other languages like French, which did not undergo such linguistic upheaval (e.g. ''boeuf'' "beef" vs. ''vache'' "cow"). With the exception of ''beef'' and ''pork'', the distinction today is gradually becoming less and less pronounced (''venison'' is commonly referred to simply as ''deer meat'', ''mutton'' is ''lamb'', and ''chicken'' is both the animal and the meat over the more traditional term ''poultry''. Use of the term ''mutton'', however,  remains, especially when referring to the meat of an older sheep, distinct from ''lamb''; and ''poultry'' remains when referring to the meat of birds and fowls in general.)
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There are Latinate words that are used in everyday speech. These words no longer appear Latinate and oftentimes have no Germanic equivalents. For instance, the words ''mountain'', ''valley'', ''river'', ''aunt'', ''uncle'', ''move'', ''use'', and ''push'' are Latinate. Likewise, the inverse can occur: ''acknowledge'', ''meaningful'', ''understanding'', ''mindful'', ''lavish'', ''behaviour'', ''forbearance'', ''behoove'', ''forestall'', ''allay'', ''rhyme'', ''starvation'', ''embodiment'' come from Anglo-Saxon, and ''allegiance'', ''abandonment'', ''debutant'', ''feudalism'', ''seizure'', ''guarantee'', ''disregard'', ''wardrobe'', ''disenfranchise'', ''disarray'', ''bandolier'', ''bourgeoisie'', ''debauchery'', ''performance'', ''furniture'', ''gallantry'' are of Germanic origin, usually through the Germanic element in French, so it is oftentimes impossible to know the origin of a word based on its register.
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English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and often imports new words and phrases. Examples of this phenomenon include contemporary words such as ''[[HTTP cookie|cookie]]'', ''[[Internet]]'' and ''[[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]]'' (technical terms), as well as ''[[genre]]'', ''[[über]]'', ''[[lingua franca]]'' and ''amigo'' (imported words/phrases from French, German, Italian, and Spanish, respectively). In addition, [[slang]] often provides new meanings for old words and phrases. In fact, this fluidity is so pronounced that a distinction often needs to be made between formal forms of English and contemporary usage.
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{{See also|sociolinguistics}}
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===Number of words in English===
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The vocabulary of English is undoubtedly very large, but assigning a specific number to its size is more a matter of definition than of calculation&nbsp;– and there is no official source to define accepted English words and spellings in the way that the French [[Académie française]] and similar bodies do for other languages.
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Archaic, dialectal, and regional words might or might not be widely considered as "English", and [[neologism]]s are continually coined in medicine, science, technology and other fields, along with new [[slang]] and adopted foreign words. Some of these new words enter wide usage while others remain restricted to small circles.
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The ''General Explanations'' at the beginning of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' states:
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{{bquote|The Vocabulary of a widely diffused and highly cultivated living language is not a fixed quantity circumscribed by definite limits... there is absolutely no defining line in any direction: the circle of the English language has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference.}}
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The current FAQ for the ''OED'' further states:
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{{bquote|How many words are there in the English language? There is no single sensible answer to this question. It's impossible to count the number of words in a language, because it's so hard to decide what actually counts as a word.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/page/howmanywords |title=How many words are there in the English language?  |work=Oxford Dictionaries Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |accessdate=17 September 2010}}</ref>}}
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The ''Oxford English Dictionary,'' 2nd edition ''(OED2)'' includes over 600,000 definitions, following a rather inclusive policy:
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{{bquote|It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang (Supplement to the ''OED,'' 1933).<ref>It went on to clarify,{{bquote|Hence we exclude all words that had become obsolete by 1150 [the end of the [[Old English]] era]... Dialectal words and forms which occur since 1500 are not admitted, except when they continue the history of the word or sense once in general use, illustrate the history of a word, or have themselves a certain literary currency.}}</ref>}}
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The editors of ''[[Webster's Dictionary|Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged]]'' include 475,000 main headwords, but in their preface they estimate the true number to be much higher. Comparisons of the vocabulary size of English to that of other languages are generally not taken very seriously by linguists and lexicographers. Besides the fact that dictionaries will vary in their policies for including and counting entries,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2139611/ |title=How many words are there in English? |last=Sheidlower |first=Jesse |date=10 April 2006|accessdate=17 September 2010}}</ref> what is meant by a given language and what counts as a word do not have simple definitions. Also, a definition of word that works for one language may not work well in another,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=2363 |title=Laden on word counting |last=Liberman |first=Mark |date=1 June 2010 |work=Language Log |accessdate=17 September 2010}}</ref> with differences in [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[orthography]] making cross-linguistic definitions and word-counting difficult, and potentially giving very different results.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/003976.html |title=An apology to our readers |last=Liberman |first=Mark |date=28 December 2006 |work=Language Log |accessdate=17 September 2010}}</ref> Linguist [[Geoffrey K. Pullum]] has gone so far as to compare concerns over vocabulary size (and the notion that a supposedly larger lexicon leads to "greater richness and precision") to an obsession with [[penis length]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/%7Emyl/languagelog/archives/003871.html |title=Vocabulary size and penis length |last=Pullum |first=Geoffrey K. |date=8 December 2006 |work=Language Log |accessdate=17 September 2010}}</ref>
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In December 2010 a joint Harvard/Google study found the language to contain 1,022,000 words and to expand at the rate of 8,500 words per year.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/internet/8207621/English-language-has-doubled-in-size-in-the-last-century.html English language has doubled in size in the last century], Richard Alleyne, Science Correspondent, ''The Telegraph'', 16 December 2010</ref> The findings came from a computer analysis of 5,195,769 digitised books.  Others have estimated a rate of growth of 25,000 words each year.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kister, Ken|title=Dictionaries defined|journal=Library Journal|date=1992-06-15|volume=117|issue =11|pages=43, 4p, 2bw}}</ref>
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===Word origins===
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{{Main|Lists of English loanwords by country or language of origin}}
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One of the consequences of the French influence is that the vocabulary of English is, to a certain extent, divided between those words that are [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] (mostly West Germanic, with a smaller influence from the North Germanic branch) and those that are "Latinate" (derived directly from [[Latin]], or through Norman French or other Romance languages). The situation is further compounded, as French, particularly [[Old French]] and [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-French]], were also contributors in English of significant numbers of Germanic words, mostly from the [[Old Frankish|Frankish]] element in French (see ''[[List of English Latinates of Germanic origin]]'').
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The majority (estimates range from roughly 50%<ref>{{harvnb|Nation|2001|p=265}}</ref> to more than 80%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/engol-0-X.html |title=Old English Online |publisher=Utexas.edu |date=20 February 2009 |accessdate=21 April 2010}}</ref>) of the thousand most common English words are Germanic. However, the majority of more advanced words in subjects such as the sciences, philosophy and mathematics come from Latin or Greek, with [[Arabic]] also [[List of Arabic loanwords in English|providing many words]] in astronomy, mathematics, and chemistry.<ref>[http://www.america.gov/st/diversity-english/2008/April/20080608224127srenoD0.9640619.html "From Arabic to English"], www.america.gov</ref>
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{| class="wikitable right"
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|+ Source of the most frequent 7,476 English words
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! || 1st 100 || 1st 1,000 || 2nd 1,000 || Subsequent
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|-
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| Germanic || 97% || 57% || 39% || 36%
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|-
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| Italic || 3% || 36% || 51% || 51%
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|-
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| Hellenic || 0 || 4% || 4% || 7%
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|-
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| Others || 0 || 3% || 6% || 6%
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|-
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! colspan="5"| Source: {{harvnb|Nation|2001|p=265}}
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|}
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Numerous sets of statistics have been proposed to demonstrate the proportionate origins of English vocabulary. None, as yet, is considered definitive by most linguists.
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A computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old ''Shorter Oxford Dictionary'' (3rd ed.) was published in ''Ordered Profusion'' by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973)<ref>{{cite book |last=Finkenstaedt |first=Thomas |author2=Dieter Wolff |title=Ordered profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon |publisher=C. Winter |year=1973 |isbn=3-533-02253-6}}</ref> that estimated the origin of English words as follows:
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[[File:Origins of English PieChart 2D.svg|thumb|250px|Influences in English [[vocabulary]]]]
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* ''[[Langues d'oïl|Langue d'oïl]]'', including French and [[Old Norman]]: [[List of English words of French origin|28.3%]]
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* Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: [[List of Latin words with English derivatives|28.24%]]
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* [[Germanic languages]] (including words directly inherited from [[Old English]]; does not include Germanic words coming from the Germanic element in French, Latin or other Romance languages): 25%
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* Greek: [[List of Greek words with English derivatives|5.32%]]
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* No etymology given: 4.03%
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* Derived from proper names: 3.28%
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* All other languages: less than 1%
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A survey by [[Joseph M. Williams]] in ''Origins of the English Language'' of 10,000 words taken from several thousand business letters gave this set of statistics:<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Joseph M. Williams]]|title=Origins of the English Language. A social and linguistic history|year=1975,1986|page={{page needed|date=December 2010}} |publisher=Free Press|asin=0029344700}}</ref>
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* French (langue d'oïl): 41%
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* "Native" English: 33%
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* Latin: 15%
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* Old Norse: 2%
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* Dutch: 1%
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* Other: 10%
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====Words of Old Norse origin====
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{{Main|List of English words of Old Norse origin}}
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Many words of Old Norse origin have entered the English language, primarily from the [[Viking]] colonisation of eastern and northern England between 800–1000 during the [[Danelaw]]. These include common words such as ''anger, awe, bag, big, birth, blunder, both, cake, call, cast, cosy, cross, cut, die, dirt, drag, drown, egg, fellow, flat, flounder, gain, get, gift, give, guess, guest, gust, hug, husband, ill, kid, law, leg, lift, likely, link, loan, loose, low, mistake, odd, race (running), raise, root, rotten, same, scale, scare, score, seat, seem, sister, skill, skin, skirt, skull, sky, stain, steak, sway, take, though, thrive, Thursday, tight, till (until), trust, ugly, want, weak, window, wing, wrong'', the pronoun ''they'' (and its forms), and even the verb ''are'' (the present plural form of ''to be'') through a merger of Old English and Old Norse cognates.<ref>{{cite web|title=Are|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=are|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary|accessdate=27 October 2010}}</ref> More recent [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]] imports include ''angstrom, fjord, geyser, kraken, litmus, nickel, ombudsman, saga, ski, slalom, smorgasbord, and tungsten''. {{citation needed|date=March 2014}}
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====Words of French origin====
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{{Main|List of English words of French origin}}
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A large portion of English vocabulary is of French or [[Langues d'oïl]] origin, and was transmitted to English via the [[Anglo-Norman language]] spoken by the [[upper class]]es in England in the centuries following the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]]. Words of Norman French origin include ''competition'', ''mountain'', ''art'', ''table'', ''publicity'', ''role'', ''pattern'', ''joust'', ''choice'', and ''force''. As a result of the length of time they have been in use in English, these words have been [[anglicised]] to fit English rules of [[phonology]], pronunciation and spelling.
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Some French words were adopted during the 17th to 19th centuries, when French was the dominant language of Western international politics and trade. These words can normally be distinguished because they retain French rules for pronunciation and spelling, including [[diacritic]]s, are often phrases rather than single words, and are sometimes written in [[Italic type|italics]]. Examples include ''police'', ''routine'', ''machine'', [[wikt:façade|façade]], [[wikt:table d'hôte|table d'hôte]] and [[wikt:affaire de cœur|affaire de cœur]]. These words and phrases retain their French spelling and pronunciation because historically their French origin was emphasised to denote the speaker as educated or well-travelled at a time when education and travelling was still restricted to the middle and upper classes, and so their use implied a higher social status in the user. ''(See also: [[French phrases used by English speakers]])''.
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====Words of Dutch and Low German origin====
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{{Main|List of English words of Dutch origin}}
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Many words describing the navy, types of ships, and other objects or activities on the water are of Dutch origin. ''Yacht'', ''skipper'', ''cruiser'', ''flag'', ''freight'', ''furlough'', ''breeze'', ''hoist'', ''iceberg'', ''boom'', ''duck'' ("fabric, cloth"), and ''maelstrom'' are examples. Other words pertain to art and daily life: ''easel'', ''etch'', ''slim'', ''staple'' (Middle Dutch ''stapel'' "market"), ''slip'' (Middle Dutch ''slippen''), ''landscape'', ''cookie'', ''curl'', ''shock'', ''aloof'', ''boss'', ''brawl'' (''brallen'' "to boast"), ''smack'' (''smakken'' "to hurl down"), ''shudder'', ''scum'', ''peg'', ''coleslaw'', ''waffle'', ''dope'' (''doop'' "dipping sauce"), ''slender'' (Old Dutch ''slinder''), ''slight'', ''gas'', ''pump''. Dutch has also contributed to English slang, e.g. ''spook'', and the now obsolete ''snyder'' (tailor) and ''stiver'' (small coin).
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Words from Low German include ''bluster, cower, dollar, drum, geek, grab, lazy, mate, monkey, mud, ogle, orlop, paltry, poll, poodle, prong, scurvy, smug, smuggle, trade''.
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==Writing system==
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{{Main|English alphabet|English braille|English orthography}}
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Since around the 9th century, English has been written in the [[Latin script]], which replaced [[Anglo-Saxon runes]]. The modern English alphabet contains 26 letters of the Latin script: [[a]], [[b]], [[c]], [[d]], [[e]], [[f]], [[g]], [[h]], [[i]], [[j]], [[k]], [[l]], [[m]], [[n]], [[o]], [[p]], [[q]], [[r]], [[s]], [[t]], [[u]], [[v]], [[w]], [[x]], [[y]], [[z]] (which also have [[Capital letters|majuscule]], capital or uppercase forms: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z). Other symbols used in writing English include the [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]], [[æ]] and [[œ]] (though these are no longer common). There is also some usage of [[diacritic]]s, mainly in foreign [[loanword]]s (like the [[acute accent]] in ''café'' and ''exposé''), and in the occasional use of a [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]] to indicate that two vowels are pronounced separately (as in ''naïve'', ''Zoë''). For more information see [[English terms with diacritical marks]].
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The spelling system, or [[orthography]], of English is multilayered, with elements of French, Latin and Greek spelling on top of the native Germanic system; further complications have arisen through [[sound change]]s with which the orthography has not kept pace. This means that, compared with many other languages, English spelling is not a reliable indicator of pronunciation and vice versa (it is not, generally speaking, a [[phonemic orthography]]).
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Though letters and sounds may not correspond in isolation, spelling rules that take into account syllable structure, phonetics, and accents are 75% or more reliable.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Abbott, M. |year=2000|title= Identifying reliable generalisations for spelling words: The importance of multilevel analysis|journal= The Elementary School Journal |volume=101|issue=2|pages= 233–245|jstor=1002344|doi=10.1086/499666}}</ref> Some phonics spelling advocates claim that English is more than 80% phonetic.<ref>Moats, L. M. (2001). Speech to print: Language essentials for teachers. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Company, ISBN 1598570501.</ref> However, English has fewer consistent relationships between sounds and letters than many other languages; for example, the letter sequence ''[[ough (orthography)|ough]]'' can be pronounced in 10 different ways. The consequence of this complex orthographic history is that reading can be challenging.<ref>McGuinness, Diane (1997) ''Why Our Children Can't Read'', New York: Touchstone, pp. 156–169, ISBN 0684853566.</ref> It takes longer for students to become completely fluent readers of English than of many other languages, including French, Greek, and Spanish.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ziegler, J. C., & Goswami, U. |pmid=15631549|year=2005|title=Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory|volume=131|issue=1|pages=3–29|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.3|journal=Psychological bulletin}}</ref> English-speaking children have been found to take up to two years longer to learn to read than children in 12 other European countries.<ref name="spellingsociety.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.spellingsociety.org/media/research.php |title=Media centre |publisher=Spelling Society |year= 2001|author=Seymour, Philip H K, University of Dundee|accessdate=21 April 2010}}</ref>
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As regards the [[consonant]]s, the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation is fairly regular. The letters ''b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, z'' represent, respectively, the phonemes {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|/h/}}, {{IPA|/dʒ/}}, {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/r/}}, {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/v/}}, {{IPA|/w/}}, {{IPA|/z/}} (as tabulated in the {{p/s|Consonants}} section above). The letters ''c'' and ''g'' normally represent {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, but there is also a [[Hard and soft C|soft ''c'']] pronounced {{IPA|/s/}}, and a [[Hard and soft G|soft ''g'']] pronounced {{IPA|/dʒ/}}. Some sounds are represented by [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]]: ''ch'' for {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, ''sh'' for {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, ''th'' for {{IPA|/θ/}} or {{IPA|/ð/}}, ''ng'' for {{IPA|/ŋ/}} (also ''ph'' is pronounced {{IPA|/f/}} in Greek-derived words). Doubled consonant letters (and the combination ''ck'') are generally pronounced as single consonants, and ''qu'' and ''x'' are pronounced as the sequences {{IPA|/kw/}} and {{IPA|/ks/}}. The letter ''y'', when used as a consonant, represents {{IPA|/j/}}. However this set of rules is not applicable without exception; many words have silent consonants or other cases of irregular pronunciation. {{citation needed|date=March 2014}}
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With the [[vowel]]s, however, correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are even more irregular. As can be seen under {{p/s|Vowels}} above, there are many more vowel [[phoneme]]s in English than there are vowel letters (''a'', ''e'', ''i'', ''o'', ''u'', ''y''). This means that diphthongs and other long vowels often need to be indicated by combinations of letters (like the ''oa'' in ''boat'' and the ''ay'' in ''stay''), or using a [[silent e|silent ''e'']] or similar device (as in ''note'' and ''cake''). Even these devices are not used consistently, so consequently vowel pronunciation remains the main source of irregularity in English orthography. {{citation needed|date=March 2014}}
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==See also==
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{{portal|Language|Writing|England|Commonwealth realms|British Empire}}
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{{Wikipedia books|English language}}
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* [[Changes to Old English vocabulary]]
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* [[Comparison of American and British English]]
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* [[English for academic purposes]]
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* [[English language in Europe]]
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* [[English-based creoles]]
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* [[Language Report]]
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* [[Lists of English words]]
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* [[Teaching English as a foreign language]]
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* [[European Society for the Study of English]]
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* [[Wikipedia:Manual of style#National varieties of English]]
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==References==
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{{reflist|30em}}
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===Bibliography===
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{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book| first=Ulrich| last=Ammon| title=Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society| publisher=Walter de Gruyter| year=2006| isbn=3-11-018418-4| url=http://books.google.com/?id=LMZm0w0k1c4C| ref=refAmmon2006}}
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* {{cite book |last=Baugh |first=Albert C. |author2=Thomas Cable |title=A History of the English Language | edition=5th |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=0-415-28099-0|ref=Baugh}}
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* {{cite book |last=Bragg |first=Melvyn |authorlink=Melvyn Bragg |title=[[The Adventure of English]]: The Biography of a Language |publisher=Arcade Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=1-55970-710-0}}
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* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |authorlink=David Crystal |year=1997a |title=English as a Global Language |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-53032-6| url=http://books.google.com/?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC| ref=Crystal1997a}}
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* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David|title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language | edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997b |isbn=0-521-55967-7| ref=Crystal1997b}}<!-- This is not the same as the 2003 second edition, it is a revised paperback edition of the first edition. -->
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* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David|title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language | edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-521-53033-4}}
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* {{cite book|last=Crystal|first=David|title=The Stories of English|publisher=Allen Lane|year=2004|isbn=0-7139-9752-4}}
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* {{cite book | last = Dunton-Downer | first = Leslie | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=NBK6FoHLgcEC&printsec=frontcover | title = The English Is Coming!: How One Language Is Sweeping the World | publisher = Touchstone Books | location = New York | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-1-4391-7665-8}}
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* {{cite book |last=Halliday |first=MAK |title=An Introduction to Functional Grammar | edition=2nd |location=London |publisher=Edward Arnold |year=1994 |isbn=0-340-55782-6}}
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* {{cite book |last=Hayford |first=Harrison |author2=Howard P. Vincent |title=Reader and Writer |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |year=1954 }} {{cite web|url=http://www.archive.org/details/readerandwriter030101mbp |title=Internet Archive: Free Download: Reader And Writer |publisher=Archive.org |date=10 March 2001 |accessdate=2 January 2010}}
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* {{cite book| first=Anthony| last=Howatt| title=A History of English Language Teaching| publisher=Oxford University Press| year=2004| isbn=0-19-442185-6| url=http://books.google.com/?id=g2e7iw_F-ZcC| ref=refHowatt2004}}
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* Kenyon, John Samuel and Knott, Thomas Albert, ''A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English'', G & C Merriam Company, Springfield, Mass, USA, 1953.
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* {{cite book| first=Roger | last=Lass | editor-first=Roger | editor-last=Lass | title=The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III: 1476&ndash;1776 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | year=1999 | chapter=Phonology and Morphology | pages=56–186}}
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* {{cite book| first=Alamin| last=Mazrui| title=The Power of Babel: Language & Governance in the African Experience| publisher=University of Chicago Press| year=1998| isbn=0-85255-807-4| url=http://books.google.com/?id=6lQTPxdYx8kC| ref=refMazrui1998}}
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* {{cite book |last=McArthur |first=T. (ed.) |title=The Oxford Companion to the English Language |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1992 |isbn=0-19-214183-X}}
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* {{cite book|last=McCrum| first=Robert|author2=Robert MacNeil |author3=William Cran  |title=[[The Story of English]]|edition=1st|location=New York|publisher=Viking|year=1986|isbn=0-670-80467-3}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Nation |first=I.S.P. |authorlink1= Paul Nation |year=2001|title=Learning Vocabulary in Another Language|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sKqx8k8gYTkC|page=477|isbn=0-521-80498-1|ref=harv}}
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* {{cite book |last=Plotkin |first=Vulf |title=The Language System of English |publisher=BrownWalker Press |year=2006 |isbn=1-58112-993-9}}
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* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Orrin |title=Old English and Its Closest Relatives |publisher=Stanford Univ. Press |year=1992 |isbn=0-8047-2221-8}}
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* {{cite book| first=Edgar| last=Schneider| title=Postcolonial English: Varieties Around the World| publisher=Cambridge University Press| year=2007| isbn=0-521-83140-7| url=http://books.google.com/?id=QIE6zGSd8okC| ref=refSchneider2007}}
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* {{cite book| first=Ronald| last=Wardhaugh| title=An Introduction to Sociolinguistics| publisher=Wiley-Blackwell| year=2006| isbn=1-4051-3559-X| url=http://books.google.com/?id=0J2VOzNYtKQC| ref=refWardhaugh2006}}
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{{refend}}
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==Further reading==
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* Partridge, A. C. ''Tudor to Augustan English: a Study in Syntax and Style, from Caxton to Johnson'', in series, ''The Language Library''. London: A. Deutsch, 1969. 242 p. SBN 233-96092-9
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==External links==
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{{Sisterlinks|commons=Category:English language|b=Subject:English language|v=Topic:English Language|n=no|s=no|species=no|voy=no|d=Q1860|wikt=Category:English language}}
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* [http://www.soundcomparisons.com/ Accents of English from Around the World (University of Edinburgh)] – hear and compare how the same 110 words are pronounced in 50 English accents from around the world
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;Dictionaries
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* [http://dicts.info/dictlist1.php Collection of English bilingual dictionaries]
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* [http://www.dict.org/ dict.org]
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* [http://www.prefixsuffix.com/ English language word roots, prefixes and suffixes (affixes) dictionary]
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* [http://www.m-w.com/ Merriam-Webster's online dictionary]
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* [http://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ Macquarie Dictionary Online]
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{{Description of English}}
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|title=Geopolitical use
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|list =
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{{English official language clickable map}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:English Language}}
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Latest revision as of 14:36, 12 September 2023

Handlers Supported

The following handlers are supported:

  • Casting
  • Drying Rack
  • Modifiers
  • Smeltery
  • Repair Materials
  • Tool Stats

Each of these handlers can have recipes added or removed: 

Parameters marked as red are optional and can be left out

//Casting
//OutputStack, InputFluid, CastStack, ConsumeCast, Time in Ticks
mods.tconstruct.Casting.addBasinRecipe(<TConstruct:MeatBlock>, <liquid:pigiron.molten> * 1152, <minecraft:bone>, true, 20);
//OutputStack, InputFluid, CastStack, ConsumeCast, Time in Ticks
mods.tconstruct.Casting.addTableRecipe(<TConstruct:strangeFood:2>, <liquid:pigiron.molten> * 57, null, false, 20);
//OutputStack
mods.tconstruct.Casting.removeBasinRecipe(<minecraft:iron_block>);
mods.tconstruct.Casting.removeTableRecipe(<minecraft:iron_ingot>);

//Drying Rack
//InputStack, OutputStack, Time in Ticks
mods.tconstruct.Drying.addRecipe(<minecraft:tallgrass:1>, <minecraft:deadbush>, 50);
//OutputStack
mods.tconstruct.Drying.removeRecipe(<TConstruct:jerky>);

//Modifiers
//ModifierString
mods.tconstruct.Modifiers.remove("Blaze");

//Smeltery
//InputStack, OutputFluid, TemperatureAmount, BlockRender
mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.addMelting(<minecraft:porkchop>, <liquid:blood> * 200, 200, <TConstruct:MeatBlock>);
//InputStack
mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.removeMelting(<TConstruct:strangeFood:1>);
//OutputFluid, InputFluidArray
mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.addAlloy(<liquid:aluminumbrass.molten> * 64, [<liquid:aluminum.molten> * 48, <liquid:gold.molten> * 16]);
//OutputFluid
mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.removeAlloy(<liquid:manyullyn.molten>);
//InputFluid, TemperatureAmount, Time in Ticks
mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.addFuel(<liquid:iron.molten>, 64, 64);
//InputFluid
mods.tconstruct.Smeltery.removeFuel(<liquid:lava>);

//Repair Materials
//InputStack, MaterialString, ValueAmount
mods.tconstruct.Tweaks.addRepairMaterial(<minecraft:stonebrick>, "Stone", 2);
//InputStack, MaterialString
mods.tconstruct.Tweaks.removeRepairMaterial(<minecraft:stone>, "Stone");

//Tool Stats
//MaterialString, DisplayName, HarvestLevel, DurabilityValue, SpeedValue, DamageValue, HandleModifier, ReinforcedLevel, StoneboundLevel, StyleString, Colour
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setStats("Stone", "Modtweaker Stone", 47, 108, 112, 83, 0.5, 102, 0.5, "gold", 484848);
//MaterialString, DisplayName
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setDisplayName("Wood", "Modtweaker Wood");
//MaterialString, HarvestLevel
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setHarvestLevel("Wood", 1);
//MaterialString, DurabilityValue
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setDurability("Wood", 3000);
//MaterialString, SpeedValue
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setSpeed("Wood", 30);
//MaterialString, DamageValue
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setDamage("Wood", 9001);
//MaterialString, HandleModifier
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setHandleModifier("Wood", 50.5);
//MaterialString, ReinforcedLevel
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setReinforcedLevel("Wood", 4);
//MaterialString, StoneboundLevel
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setStoneboundLevel("Wood", 6);
//MaterialString, StyleString
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setStyle("Wood", "§4");
//MaterialString, AbilityString
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setAbility("Wood", "Stonebound");
//MaterialString, DurabilityValue, DrawSpeedValue, FlightSpeedValue
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setBowStats("Stone", 100, 21, 12.5F);
//MaterialString, DurabilityValue
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setBowDurability("Wood", 2000);
//MaterialString, DrawSpeedValue
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setBowDrawspeed("Wood", 250);
//MaterialString, FlightSpeedValue
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setBowFlightSpeed("Wood", 6.5F);
//MaterialString, MassValue, BreakChanceValue, AccuracyValue
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setArrowStats("Stone", 2.5F, 5.0F, 100F)
//MaterialString, MassValue
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setArrowMass("Wood", 3.5F);
//MaterialString, BreakChanceValue
mods.tconstruct.ToolStats.setArrowBreakChance("Wood", 25F);
//MaterialString, AccuracyValue
mods.tconstruct.TooLStats.setArrowAccuracy("Wood", 20F);

Commands Supported

Prints are stored in the minetweaker log in the minecraft directory. 

/minetweaker tconstruct [HANDLER] - Outputs a list of all TConstruct recipes
/minetweaker materials - Outputs a list of material strings
/minetweaker modifiers - Outputs a list of modifiers strings


ModTweaker Supported Mods

Applied Energistics 2 | Aura Cascade | Botania | Chisel 2 | Ex Nihilo | Extra Utilities | Factorization | Flaxbeard's Steam Power Support | Forestry | Mariculture | Mekanism | Metallurgy 4 | PneumaticCraft | Railcraft | Thaumcraft 4 | Thermal Expansion | Tinker's Construct

Retrieved from "https://minetweaker3.aizistral.com/index.php?title=ModTweaker:TConstruct_Support&oldid=592"